| Weapon | Developed | Used By | Military Purpose | Type of Tech | Repurpose (Potential/Actual) | Reference | Link |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Large Geospatial Models | 2025 | Niantic Labs | (proposed) | Large generative model combined with 3D photogrammetry of public spaces for enhanced/predictive mapping capacities | Pokémon Go | Maiberg (2024b) | 404 Media |
| Polygraph+ | 2024 | US, Presage, Altec | Credibility Assessment, updated polygraph, physiological tracking, biofeedback, AI analysis | “standard consumer grade cameras for medical assessment” “research and clinical technologies that monitor biosignals” | Interrogation, job interviews, “vetting new hires, evaluating existing DoD personnel for access to classified information, assisting in determining source credibility, and supporting criminal investigations” | (“DoD, DIU Announce Polygraph+ Credibility Assessment Modernization Effort” n.d.) | DIU |
| Lavender | 2023 | Israel | Creates kill lists. Ranks each person from 1-100 for their similarity to pre-existing targets, based on data found in WhatsApp groups, mobile phones, location targeting, network surveillance, face recognition, and other tracking techniques. collects “Visual information, cellular information, social media connections, battlefield information, phone contacts, photos. […and] over time the machine will come to identify features on its own” | Ranking, classification, prediction, text analysis, image analysis | Works on similar principles to recommender systems: If you liked this reel, or behaved this way online, you are most like these other internet/mobile users. Uses the hypersurveillance of vast cyber infrastructure to connect information that may not represent “likeness.” Also entangled with text/image analysis | (Abraham 2024) | 972 Mag |
| Where’s Daddy | 2023 | Israel | Determines when people are at home with their families in order to destroy them and their homes | Geolocation, computer vision (object detection), signal tracking | Package delivery, advertising, legal preceedings | (Abraham 2024) | 972 Mag |
| Legion X | 2022 | Israel, Elbit Systems | Platform for identifying and targeting people carrying weapons or wearing uniforms, for controlling autonomous drone swarms, “coordinated strike after human confirmation” | Network, object identification, geolocation, weapon, pose estimation | Security, identify people in crowds, in shops | (“Legion-X Autonomous Networked Combat Solution” n.d.) | Elbit Systems |
| Artificial Intelligence Platform | 2022 | Palantir | “Artificial Intelligence Platform, which allows for the integration of large language models into the company’s military products” “An Army of AI Agents that do what I say for me” | Large language model, natural language processing, + | Supply chain management, contracts, infrastructure grid, “LMNotebook” dashboards | (Palantir 2023) | Palantir |
| MetaConstellation | 2022 | Ukraine, Palantir, USA | “relies on intelligence gathered on enemy troop positions by commercial satellites, heat sensors and reconnaissance drones as well as spies working behind enemy lines and ordinary Ukrainians pin-pointing the locations of Russian troops on the country’s E-Enemy app. The software uses AI to transform the data into a map highlighting the probable locations of Russian artillery, tanks and troops. A Ukrainian soldier using a tablet device is given a list of coordinates and can then direct their fire. The technology also “learns” from previous strikes, meaning that it is constantly getting better at identifying and locating material.” | Prediction, object detection, “process imagery, detect, and geolocate objects, and determine any movement” | “monitor locations across the globe for indications of competitor activities” | (Grylls 2022) | Palantir |
| Clearview | 2022 | Ukraine, ClearviewAI | Facial recognition to “identify dead soldiers and to uncover Russian assailants and combat misinformation.” | Facial recognition | Commercial/policing tool then used for warfare | (Fontes and Kamminga 23AD) | National Defense Magazine |
| Wolly | 2022 | Ukraine, Roboneers, D3 (former Google employees, investors), Helsing (investors) | Automated machine guns “We could sit in the trench drinking coffee and smoking cigarettes and shoot at the Russians” | Object identification, computer vision, repurposed video game controllers | Security systems, prisons, protests | (Mozur and Satariano 2024) | NYT |
| First-Person-View Drones | 2022 | Ukraine, Vyriy, PG Robotics, Skyeton, Swarmer, others | Fully automated, weaponized drones, with automated targeting. Some can easily be built with hobby kit like materials. | Quads, computer vision, deep learning, classification and sorting algorithms | Personal drones, sports, already in use. Drones as local police first responders | (Mozur and Satariano 2024) | NYT |
| MAPLE | 2022 | United Kingdom | Command and control platform for the UK Navy to control an automated fleet of unmanned air, ground, and water vehicles | Assign, task | Driver and delivery apps, logistics apps | (Fish and Mehta 2022) | Breaking Defense |
| The Gospel (Habsora) | 2021 | Israel | Marks homes and public buildings as targets for destruction, for alleged military use, based on “enormous amounts of data that “tens of thousands of intelligence officers could not process,” and recommends bombing sites in real time. Possible data includes: “cell phone messages, satellite images, drone footage, and even seismic sensors.” | Classification, data analysis, object recognition | Redlining, unequal or biased distribution of resources | (Abraham 2023) | 972 Mag |
| The Alchemist | 2021 | Israel | Sends real-time data to commanders in field about possible threats, using machine learning | Transmit | As-yet unknown | (Ahronheim 2021) | Jerusalem Post |
| Project Nimbus | 2021 | Israel, Google, Amazon | Provides cloud services (storage, compute) “Nimbus is a flagship project and a key anchor in the implementation of the Israeli Government’s cloud policy, and is intended to provide a comprehensive and in-depth solution to the provision of public cloud services to the Government, the defense establishment and other public organizations. […] accelerating the Government’s digital transformation process, as well as improving the command, control and cyber defense capabilities of the government IT systems.” | Cloud compute and storage, edge computing | Cloud compute and storage, edge computing | (“Workers Against Project Nimbus Are Sharing Stories and Organizing Action This Thursday” n.d.) | Tech Workers Coalition Newsletter |
| Assault Rifle Combat Application System | 2021 | Israel, Elbit Systems | a gunsight sold by the Israeli defense firm Elbit Systems. According to a company spec sheet, the “AI-powered” device is capable of “human target detection” at a range of more than 600 yards, and human target “identification” (presumably, discerning whether a person is someone who could be shot) at about the length of a football field. Anna Ahronheim-Cohen, a spokesperson for the company, told MIT Technology Review, “The system has already been tested in real-time scenarios by fighting infantry soldiers.” | Pose estimation, object detection, AR | Video games: “We made it very intuitive so it looks like PlayStation’s Fortnite ; it shows range, wind and ammo left, etc.,” said Arie Chernobrov, general manager of Elbit Security Systems. | (Atherton 2021) | Popular Science |
| Lethal autonomous weapons (LAW) | 2021 | Libya, Azerbaijan (US, Turkey, Israeli-made), Russia (aka Kub & Lancet) | ““loitering munitions” — drones that can autonomously patrol an area and automatically divebomb enemy radar signals. These weapons look like smaller versions of the remote-controlled drones that have been used extensively by the U.S. military in Iraq, Afghanistan and other conflicts. Instead of launching missiles through remote control, though, loitering munitions have a built-in explosive and destroy themselves on impact with their target.” | Automated drones, hardware, geolocation | Consumer drones | (Vynck 2021) | Washington Post |
| Gotham | 2021 | USA, Palantir | An operating system “Powering the Kill chain”: AI target identification and pairing, command center, mixed reality, edge computing. Using machine learning models | Sorting, identifying, data analysis, edge computing | Miscellaneous business to business applications, “global project management” | (Palantir 2021) | Palantir |
| Joint Warfighting Cloud Capability, JEDI | 2021 | USA, Amazon, Microsoft, Google, Oracle, IBM | Multi-cloud provider for military use, including Unclassified, Secret and Top Secret (2021, 2019) | Storage, compute (calculation), “Commercial Cloud Enterprise” | Cloud compute and storage, edge computing | (Harper 2021) | National Defense Magazine |
| Fire Weaver | 2020 | Israel, Raphael | Sensor-to-Shooter System. “The system connects all battlefield elements in real time and instantly selects the most relevant shooter for each target – enabling comprehensive situational awareness and simultaneous, precision strikes. Collecting, filtering, and disseminating data from multiple sources […] – with details down to a specific window in a targeted building. Marking and sharing targets, enemy locations, blue forces, and POIs on all weapon sights” | Analyzing, filtering, real-time data | As-yet unknown | (“Rafael : FIRE WEAVER- Multi Service, Network Centric Warfare” n.d.) | Rafael |
| Fire Factory | 2020 | Israel, Raphael | Calculates necessary bomb strength to destroy “target” and schedules aircraft to deliver it. “uses data about military-approved targets to calculate munition loads, prioritize and assign thousands of targets to aircraft and drones, and propose a schedule.” | Sorting, tasking, assign | As-yet unknown | (Newman 2023) | Bloomberg, Business Standard |
| Dialect Recognition Software (DIAS) | 2019 | Germany | Determines “authenticity” of migrants’ claims to refugee status via computer voice analysis, used by the German Federal Asylum Agency. Claims to detect accent (“language biometry”) despite high error rate. | Voice recognition, telephone audio datasets | Voice print for identification, verification, entry, and residency permit | (Lulamae n.d.) | Algorithm Watch |
| Automated Facial Recognition System (AFRS) | 2019 | India | Facial recognition used for missing children | Facial recognition | Repurposed for surveillance and crackdowns of peaceful protests | (“Privacy Fears as India Police Use Facial Recognition at Rally” 2019) | Al Jazeera |
| Starshield, Starlink | 2024, 2019 | USA, Ukraine, SpaceX | Swarming spy satellites, imaging, reconnaisance | Infrastructure | Commercially available internet access | (Taylor 2024) | Reuters |
| Pantsir-SM | 2019 | Russia | Modifications of existing air defense systems incorporate algorithms to orient, detect, and categorize targets by degree of danger, select a method for defense, “then open fire without human intervention.” | Classify, identify | nan | (Hynek and Solovyeva 2022) | Hynek, Solovyeva (2022) |
| Red Wolf | 2018 | Israel | Monitors and controls people’s movement using facial recognition | Facial recognition, camera infrastructure | Dating apps, photo library search, local policing, traffic tickets (BBC), public event security | (“Israel Using Previously-Unreported Facial Recognition System to ‘Automate Apartheid’ Against Palestinians - New Report” n.d.) | Amnesty Int |
| Blue Wolf | 2018 | Israel | Lets soldiers instantly access and add to face recognition human database (Wolf Pack) via app | App interface, facial recognition | Border patrol, security, restriction of movement | (“Israel Using Previously-Unreported Facial Recognition System to ‘Automate Apartheid’ Against Palestinians - New Report” n.d.) | Amnesty Int |
| Wolf Pack | 2018 | Israel | “Vast database containing all available information on Palestinians from the Occupied Palestinian Territories, including places of residence, family members and whether they are wanted for questioning by the Israeli authorities.” | Database, data aggregation | Social credit systems, biased allocation of resources | (“Israel Using Previously-Unreported Facial Recognition System to ‘Automate Apartheid’ Against Palestinians - New Report” n.d.) | Amnesty Int |
| Mabat 2000 | 2018 | Israel, | Infrastructure of surveillance cameras in occupied territories and illegally annexed areas that support the Wolf systems | Cameras | Existing infrastructure to build AI systems on top of | (“Israel Using Previously-Unreported Facial Recognition System to ‘Automate Apartheid’ Against Palestinians - New Report” n.d.) | Amnesty Int |
| TKH Security (Dutch), | ~2 cameras every 5 meters | ||||||
| Hikvision (China) | |||||||
| Urban Reconnaissance through Supervised Autonomy (URSA) | 2018 | USA | “enabled robots and drones to act as forward observers for platoons in urban operations. After input from the project’s advisory group on ethical and legal issues, it was decided that the software would only ever designate people as”persons of interest.” “DARPA program to enable improved techniques for rapidly discriminating hostile intent and filtering out threats in complex urban environments” “combining new knowledge about human behaviors, autonomy algorithms, integrated sensors, multiple sensor modalities, and measurable human responses to discriminate the subtle differences between hostile and innocent people” | Sorting, identifying, data analysis, behavior analysis | Suggested as drones to patrol cities | (“Urban Reconnaissance Through Supervised Autonomy” n.d.) | DARPA |
| TacNet | 2017 | Germany, Rheinmetall | “command and control application” including digital force deployment using AI to decide where and when to place troops. “By analyzing geo data and the monitored situation on the battlefield, the system automatically provides positions to achieve the mission objective and to eliminate potential risks. Command selects according the strategic approach and hand over information directly to his team. […] Accelerate decision making process through AI. Share positions in real time to achieve your mission objectives as quickly as possible” | Geolocation, object detection | Tasking and tracking gig workers | (“Rheinmetall-DigitalForces” n.d.) | Rheinmetall |
| Bylina | 2017 | Russia, Syria | Reportedly tested in Ukraine and Syria, this system can independently evaluate the battlefield situation and calculate how to attack structures. | Info synthesis, predict, assign | As-yet unknown | (Penati and Nunes 2021) | Penati and Nunes |
| Project Maven | 2017 | USA & Google | Object detection from satellite images to destroy ground targets. “a Pentagon program that developed target recognition algorithms for video footage from drones” | Object detection, computer vision, data processing | Mapping, location confirmation, surveillance | (Michel 2023) | MIT Tech Review |
| PackBot | 2016 | Arlington Capital Partners (iRobot) | Search and rescue, and bomb disposal robot | Site mapping, sensors | Roomba | (Swearingen 2018) | New York Magazine |
| GIS Arta | 2014 | Ukraine | Pairs a battlefield target to an artillery unit (“like Uber rider to driver” | Tasking, sorting | Driver and delivery apps, logistics apps | (Michel 2023) | MIT Tech Review |
| IrisGuard | 2013 | Jordan, UNHCR, IrisGuard Inc | Iris scanning biometric hardware, software, and storage | Iris scanning biometric hardware, software, and storage | FinTech e-wallets, payment ID, Worldcoin, etc. | (Dongus 2018) | Ars Electronica |
| Skynet | 2012 | USA | “uses phone location and call metadata from bulk phone call records to detect suspicious patterns in the physical movements of suspects and their communication habits, according to a 2012 government presentation The Intercept obtained from Edward Snowden. The presentation indicates that Skynet looks for terrorist connections based on questions such as “who has traveled from Peshawar to Faisalabad or Lahore (and back) in the past month? Who does the traveler call when he arrives?” It also looks for suspicious behaviors such as someone who engages in “excessive SIM or handset swapping” or receives “incoming calls only.” The goal is to identify people who move around in a pattern similar to Al Qaeda couriers who are used to pass communication and intelligence between the group’s senior leaders. ” | Filtering, sorting, pattern matching | Leads to AI-DSS used above ^^ | (Zetter 2015) | WIRED |
| Robot Riot Control, Prison Guard | 2011 | China, South Korea | “3D depth cameras, a two-way wireless communication system, and software capable of recognizing certain human behavior patterns” | Behavior pattern detection, motion tracking, pose detection | Private security robots (in use in US cities) | (“Where to Draw the Line: Increasing Autonomy in Weapon Systems – Technology and Trends” 2020) | PAX for Peace |
| Pegasus | 2011 | Many countries | Access mobile phones via spyware, targeted journalists, activists, dissidents, heads of state | Cyber weapon, spyware | Continued personal data surveillance | (Priest, Timberg, and Mekhennet 2021) | Washington Post |
| Sentry-Tech, Super Aegis III, Sentry Robot | 2010 | South Korea, Israel | ““An automated gun turret that can be mounted with a 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine gun, automatic 40 mm grenade launcher, or portable surface-to-air missile. With a detection range of 2.2 km in total darkness, utilising IR thermal sensors, colour camera with 30x magnification, laser illuminator and laser range finder. Automated detection, tracking, targeting and manual or automated firing. Although not initially designed to include manual functions, there is a requirement for manual input that permits the turret to shoot. Currently the weapon has no way to distinguish between friend or foe. “The system’s highly accurate target engagement and auto-tracking capabilities, | Optical sensors, thermal sensors, tracking, automated firing. Connected to gun turrets | Automatic security cameras and sensor activated tech | (Vynck 2021) | Washington Post |
| combined with accurate stabilisation mechanism, enable superior performance under the most adverse conditions”. “Once IDF sensors locate a potential target, the operator can cue Sentry Tech to verify or engage the target through its own electro-optic (EO) day/night sensor package. The sensor-acquired information is transferred to the electro-optic package of the weapon station, which slews to the target, enabling the operator to locate and track the target”. “Sources at Rafael say that the company is now developing an autonomous “see-shoot” system which will not require human intervention.” Autonomous “As early as 2010, the arms division of South Korean tech giant Samsung built autonomous sentry guns that use image recognition to spot humans and fire at them. Similar sentry guns have been deployed by Israel on its border with the Gaza Strip. Both governments say the weapons are controlled by humans, though the systems are capable of operating on their own. | |||||||
| PRISM/XKEYSCORE | 2007 | USA, Google, Microsoft, Verizon, Facebook, Skype, YouTube, Apple, Yahoo, etc. | Used the US Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act to collect and store massive amounts of internet data on citizens | Storage, data collection | Common data privacy breaches and personal surveillance in collaboration with private companies | (Nakashima 2021) | Washington Post |
| DynaSpeak | 2006 | SRI, USA | Speech recognition engine, used in IraqComm speech translation system, provides speech-to-speech machine translation of English–Arabic for US forces in Iraq. | Speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine translation “trained to handle topics of tactical importance” | They also offer the EduSpeak toolkit for developers of second-language learning tools. | (Frandsen, Riehemann, and Precoda 2010) | Sobh et al |
| CALO (Cognitive Agent that Learns and Organizes) | 2003-2014 | USA (DARPA), SRI, Swiss Institute of Technology | Automates tasks, predicts and takes action on behalf of field commanders | Agent, natural language processing, voice regonition, voice synthesis, classification, clustering, information extraction, document classification, sorting, annotating text, entity extraction, semantic extraction | Siri (Apple) digital assistant | (Finn 2017) | Finn. What Algorithms Want. & pal.sri.com |
| Golden Shield, Skynet, Sharp Eyes | 2003 | China | “The eyes that safeguard China” is a network of 600 million surveillance cameras or one camera for every two adults, plus the social incentives built in to view and report on footage. As AI technologies have improved, the system has increased predictive policing and the databases it references | Cameras, social incentives, reporting, predictive policing, databases | Used against Hong Kong protestors (2019); Proposed use as lunar surveillance (2024) | (Thompson 2021) | Georgetown CSET |
AI War Cloud
Battlefield to Desktop
Keywords
artificial intelligence, artistic research, automated decision making, autonomous weapons, critical AI, defense, generative AI, international security, machine learning, military, surveillance, technoimperialism, tech industry, warfare
When the bots, recommender systems, and automated agents many people use daily are the same technologies used to wage war, how should we understand and hold these systems to account? Ultimately, what responsibilities do tech makers and users have in choosing AI tools, when their development also leads to deadly outcomes at massive scales? With the spotlight now on systems like Ukraine’s Palantir MetaConstellation and Israel’s Lavender, the stakes for machine learning tasks are increasingly urgent and personal. This project examines the specific machine learning tasks used in military “AI Decision Support Systems” (AI-DSS). These combine massive amounts of data and processing to help make choices about who lives or dies, speeding up the process exponentially. The research presents a database that details how the training datasets, models, and inferences military tools rely on are the very same types used by consumers. It shows how these are also deployed by, or even upon, citizens of the countries that first developed them, after they are tested on vulnerable foreign populations in conflict zones.
AI War Cloud is an interactive database and tangible interactive installation connecting and explaining the current techno-imperial boomerang created by machine learning.
Code
import pandas as pd
from pandas import Series, DataFrame
import networkx as nx
import gravis as gv
from pprint import pprint
# create graph with edges from csv import
Edges_Deployed = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "E_isDeployedBy")
Edges_Developed = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "E_isDevelopedBy")
Edges_Place = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "E_place")
Edges_Connection = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "E_connection")
all_edges = [Edges_Deployed, Edges_Developed, Edges_Place, Edges_Connection]
Edges = pd.concat(all_edges)
g = nx.from_pandas_edgelist(Edges,
source='source',
target='target',
edge_attr=['label','weight'],
create_using=nx.Graph(), #DiGraph
edge_key=False)
# print(g.edges())
# assign data to nodes (stakeholders)
Stakeholders = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "N_Stakeholders") #, header=0, index_col=0
Stakeholders = Stakeholders.T # transforms from long to wide table
Stakeholders.index_col = 'id'
StakeDict = Stakeholders.to_dict()
# pprint((StakeDict))
for d in StakeDict:
g.nodes[StakeDict[d]['id']].update(StakeDict[d])
# assign data to nodes (systems)
Systems = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "N_Systems")
Systems = Systems.T # transforms from long to wide table
Systems.index_col = 'id'
SysDict = Systems.to_dict()
for d in SysDict:
g.nodes[SysDict[d]['id']].update(SysDict[d]) #this worked!!?????!!!!!
# assign data to nodes (civic)
Civic = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "N_Civic")
Civic = Civic.T # transforms from long to wide table
Civic.index_col = 'id'
CivDict = Civic.to_dict()
for d in CivDict:
g.nodes[CivDict[d]['id']].update(CivDict[d])
# assign data to nodes (historical)
Hist = pd.read_excel("./data/aiwc.ods", sheet_name = "N_Historical")
Hist = Hist.T # transforms from long to wide table
Hist.index_col = 'id'
HistDict = Hist.to_dict()
for d in HistDict:
g.nodes[HistDict[d]['id']].update(HistDict[d])
# test nodes
# print(g.nodes.data())
# print(g.nodes['Lavender']['nounKey'])
# visual settings
gg = g.graph
gg['edge_opacity'] = 0.25
gg['node_opacity'] = 0 #.75
# gg['node_shape'] = 'rectangle'
# gg['node_border_size'] = 0
gg['edge_label_size'] = 5
gg['node_label_size'] = 8
# gg['node_color'] = 'gray'
# gg['border_size'] = 0
gg['node_click'] = 'Details: $hover'
# centrality = nx.algorithms.degree_centrality(g)
# nx.set_node_attributes(g, centrality, 'size')
# communities = nx.algorithms.community.louvain_communities(g)
communities = nx.algorithms.community.greedy_modularity_communities(g)
colors = ['#51DBD9', '#5186DB', '#51B2DB', '#51DBAB', '#515ADB', '#009ADB']
for community, color in zip(communities, colors):
for node in community:
g.nodes[node]['color'] = color #add edges to this too
gv.d3(g,
graph_height=600,
zoom_factor=0.8,
show_details=False,
show_details_toggle_button=True,
show_node_label=True,
node_label_data_source='name',
# node_size_data_source='year',
node_size_factor = 2,
# use_node_size_normalization=True,
# node_size_normalization_max=20,
show_edge_label=True,
# edge_size_data_source='size',
# edge_size_normalization_max=3,
# edge_size_normalization_min=0.5,
edge_label_data_source='label',
edge_curvature=0,
node_hover_neighborhood=True,
node_hover_tooltip=True,
edge_hover_tooltip=True,
use_collision_force=True,
many_body_force_strength=- 400.0,
many_body_force_theta=0.9,
node_drag_fix=True,
show_node_image=True,
node_image_size_factor=2,
show_node_label_border=False,
show_edge_label_border=False,
# node_label_rotation=0
# node_label_font='Arial',
use_x_positioning_force = True,
x_positioning_force_strength = 0.11,
use_y_positioning_force = True,
y_positioning_force_strength = 0.11,
# use_centering_force = False,
)
Details for selected element
References
Abraham, Yuval. 2023. “‘A Mass Assassination Factory’: Inside Israel’s Calculated Bombing of Gaza.” +972 Magazine. November 30, 2023. https://www.972mag.com/mass-assassination-factory-israel-calculated-bombing-gaza/.
———. 2024. “‘Lavender’: The AI Machine Directing Israel’s Bombing Spree in Gaza.” +972 Magazine. April 3, 2024. https://www.972mag.com/lavender-ai-israeli-army-gaza/.
Ahronheim, Anna. 2021. “Israel’s Operation Against Hamas Was the World’s First AI War.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. May 27, 2021. https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/gaza-news/guardian-of-the-walls-the-first-ai-war-669371.
Atherton, Kelsey D. 2021. “This High-Tech Gunsight Could Allow Soldiers to Shoot Around Corners, Matrix-Style.” Popular Science, September 17, 2021. https://www.popsci.com/technology/arcas-high-tech-gunsight/.
“DoD, DIU Announce Polygraph+ Credibility Assessment Modernization Effort.” n.d. Accessed July 2, 2024. https://www.diu.mil/latest/department-of-defense-defense-innovation-unit-announce-polygraph-effort-to.
Dongus, Ariana. 2018. “Refugee Camps as Proving Grounds for New Technologies: Ariana Dongus.” Ars Electronica Blog. August 27, 2018. https://ars.electronica.art/aeblog/en/2018/08/27/ariana-dongus/.
Finn, Ed. 2017. What Algorithms Want : Imagination in the Age of Computing. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/[SITE_ID]/detail.action?docID=4819947.
Fish, Tim, and Aaron Mehta. 2022. “Meet MAPLE, the Brain That Will Run the UK’s Autonomous Naval Fleet.” Breaking Defense. April 1, 2022. https://breakingdefense.com/2022/04/meet-maple-the-brain-that-will-run-the-uks-autonomous-naval-fleet/.
Fontes, Robin, and Jorrit Kamminga. 23AD. “Ukraine A Living Lab for AI Warfare.” National Defense Magazine, March 24, 23AD. https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2023/3/24/ukraine-a-living-lab-for-ai-warfare.
Frandsen, Michael W., Susanne Z. Riehemann, and Kristin Precoda. 2010. “IraqComm and FlexTrans: A Speech Translation System and Flexible Framework.” In Innovations and Advances in Computer Sciences and Engineering, edited by Tarek Sobh, 527–32. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3658-2_92.
Grylls, George. 2022. “Ukraine Is Outflanking Russia with Ammunition from Big Tech.” December 24, 2022. https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/ukraine-is-outflanking-russia-with-ammunition-from-big-tech-lxp6sv3qz.
Harper, John. 2021. “Pentagon Cancels JEDI Program, Launches New Cloud Computing Effort.” July 6, 2021. https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2021/7/6/pentagon-cancels-jedi-program-launches-new-cloud-computing-effort.
Hynek, Nik, and Anzhelika Solovyeva. 2022. Militarizing Artificial Intelligence: Theory, Technology, and Regulation. 1st ed. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003045489.
“Israel Using Previously-Unreported Facial Recognition System to ‘Automate Apartheid’ Against Palestinians - New Report.” n.d. Accessed June 1, 2024. https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/israel-using-previously-unreported-facial-recognition-system-automate-apartheid.
“Legion-X Autonomous Networked Combat Solution.” n.d. Elbit Systems. Accessed January 25, 2025. https://elbitsystems.com/product/legion-x/.
Lulamae, Josaphine. n.d. “The BAMF’s Controversial Dialect Recognition Software: New Languages and an EU Pilot Project.” AlgorithmWatch. Accessed January 26, 2025. https://algorithmwatch.org/en/bamf-dialect-recognition/.
Maiberg, Emanuel. 2024a. “Pokémon Go Players Have Unwittingly Trained AI to Navigate the World.” 404 Media. November 19, 2024. https://www.404media.co/pokemon-go-players-have-unwittingly-trained-ai-to-navigate-the-world/.
———. 2024b. “Pokémon Go Data ‘Adding Amplitude to War Is Obviously an Issue,’ Niantic Exec Says.” 404 Media. November 25, 2024. https://archive.ph/C3Tf0.
Michel, Arthur Holland. 2023. “Inside the Messy Ethics of Making War with Machines.” MIT Technology Review, August. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/08/16/1077386/war-machines/.
Mozur, Paul, and Adam Satariano. 2024. “In Ukraine War, A.I. Begins Ushering In an Age of Killer Robots - The New York Times.” New York Times, July 2, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/02/technology/ukraine-war-ai-weapons.html.
Nakashima, Ellen. 2021. “NSA Surveillance Program Still Raises Privacy Concerns Years After Exposure, Member of Privacy Watchdog Says.” Washington Post, June 29, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/nsa-surveillance-xkeyscore-privacy/2021/06/29/b2134e7a-d685-11eb-a53a-3b5450fdca7a_story.html.
Newman, Marissa. 2023. “Israel Quietly Embeds AI Systems in Deadly Military Ops as Tensions Surge.” July 16, 2023. https://www.business-standard.com/world-news/israel-quietly-embeds-ai-systems-in-deadly-military-ops-as-tensions-surge-123071600147_1.html.
Palantir, dir. 2021. Palantir Gotham for Defense Decision Making. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxKghrZU5w8.
———, dir. 2023. Palantir AIP | Defense and Military. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEM5qz__HOU.
Penati, Sabrina, and Laura Pistarini Teixeira Nunes. 2021. “On the Use of Artificial Intelligence in the Framework of the Syrian War.” Genocideprevention.eu. September 7, 2021. https://www.genocideprevention.eu/en/publications/323-on-the-use-of-artificial-intelligence-in-the-framework-of-the-syrian-war.
Priest, Dana, Craig Timberg, and Souad Mekhennet. 2021. “Private Israeli Spyware Used to Hack Cellphones of Journalists, Activists Worldwide.” Washington Post. 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/interactive/2021/nso-spyware-pegasus-cellphones/.
“Privacy Fears as India Police Use Facial Recognition at Rally.” 2019. Al Jazeera. December 30, 2019. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/30/privacy-fears-as-india-police-use-facial-recognition-at-rally.
“Rafael : FIRE WEAVER- Multi Service, Network Centric Warfare.” n.d. Rafael. Accessed January 26, 2025. https://www.rafael.co.il/system/fireweaver/.
“Rheinmetall-DigitalForces.” n.d. Rheinmetall. Accessed January 26, 2025. https://www.rheinmetall.com/en/products/digital-forces/digital-forces/digital-forces-land.
Swearingen, Jake. 2018. “How the Roomba Company Decided to Stop Making Bots for the Military.” Intelligencer. December 6, 2018. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/12/why-the-roomba-company-stopped-making-bots-for-the-military.html.
Taylor, Marisa. 2024. “Exclusive: Musk’s SpaceX Is Building Spy Satellite Network for US Intelligence Agency, Sources Say.” Reuters, March 16, 2024, sec. Space. https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/musks-spacex-is-building-spy-satellite-network-us-intelligence-agency-sources-2024-03-16/.
Thompson, Adrienne. 2021. “China’s ‘Sharp Eyes’ Program Aims to Surveil 100% of Public Space.” Center for Security and Emerging Technology (blog). March 2, 2021. https://cset.georgetown.edu/article/chinas-sharp-eyes-program-aims-to-surveil-100-of-public-space/.
“Urban Reconnaissance Through Supervised Autonomy.” n.d. Accessed January 26, 2025. https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/urban-reconnaissance-through-supervised-autonomy.
Vynck, Gerrit De. 2021. “The U.S. Says Humans Will Always Be in Control of AI Weapons. But the Age of Autonomous War Is Already Here.” Washington Post, August 13, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/07/07/ai-weapons-us-military/.
“Where to Draw the Line: Increasing Autonomy in Weapon Systems – Technology and Trends.” 2020. PAX for Peace. November 29, 2020. https://paxforpeace.nl/publications/where-to-draw-the-line/?highlight=where%20to%20draw%20the%20line.
“Workers Against Project Nimbus Are Sharing Stories and Organizing Action This Thursday.” n.d. TWC Newsletter. Accessed January 25, 2025. https://news.techworkerscoalition.org/2022/09/06/issue-13/.
Zetter, Kim. 2015. “So, the NSA Has an Actual Skynet Program.” Wired, May 8, 2015. https://www.wired.com/2015/05/nsa-actual-skynet-program/.